SoNaRR 2025: Mountain, moorland and heath

Natural Resources Wales

This information is part of the State of Natural Resources Report 2025

Mountainous habitats are those above the climatic tree-line. Moorlands and heaths include upland and lowland heathlands, moorlands, blanket bog, montane habitats (including ffridd), inland rock habitats and stands of bracken in the lowlands. This ecosystem is often interspersed with other ecosystems such as Semi-natural grasslands, Woodlands and Freshwater. Coastal and dune heathlands are covered in the Coastal margins assessment.

Key messages

  • This ecosystem comprises a diverse range of habitats of high biodiversity importance and provides key benefits including carbon storage, flood mitigation, food, fibre and some of Wales' most iconic species and landscapes. Peatlands, in healthy condition, are particularly effective at carbon sequestration covering just 4% of the land and storing 30% of our land-based carbon.
  • The majority of Mountain, moorland and heath ecosystems occur in the uplands, which accounts for 19.3% of the Welsh land. In contrast, the lowland peatlands and heathlands are frequently small, highly fragmented and heavily impacted by neighbouring land uses.
  • Key pressures come from climate change, Invasive Non-native Species, air and groundwater pollution, changes in land use, and land management practices especially agricultural intensification, historic afforestation, drainage and declines in traditional grazing.
  • Action must be taken to manage protected sites to improve the condition of their features, and to build wider ecosystem resilience by restoring priority habitats and addressing pressures such as nitrogen pollution.
  • Action to meet renewable energy and tree planting targets will need careful management to meet the requirements of both the climate and nature emergencies. As peat soils are now confined to just 4% of the Welsh landscape, it is essential to avoid any further losses through development pressure.

Assessment of SMNR

Aim 1: Stocks of natural resources are safeguarded and enhanced

Mountain, moorland and heath ecosystems in Wales support iconic species such as red grouse, ring ouzel, and the Snowdon beetle, alongside rare plants like Alpine saxifrage and three-lobed water crowfoot. However, pressures from invasive non-native species (INNS), nitrogen pollution, and land-use change have degraded habitats. Rhododendron ponticum alone has spread across 2,000 hectares in Snowdonia. Air and water pollution continue to exceed critical thresholds, particularly in peatlands and heathlands, with nitrogen deposition and agricultural runoff contributing to habitat decline. Climate change intensifies these pressures through increased droughts, storms, and wildfires, threatening carbon-rich soils and biodiversity.

Efforts to safeguard resources include the National Peatland Action Programme, which restored over 3,600 hectares of peatland, improving carbon storage and habitat condition. Local projects like the Carneddau Landscape Partnership and Celtic Rainforest LIFE have targeted INNS control and afforestation impacts. Monitoring networks and citizen science initiatives support data collection and community engagement. Despite progress, further action is needed to manage protected sites, reduce pollution, and prevent development on vulnerable peat soils, which store 30% of Wales' land-based carbon but cover only 4% of its area.

Aim 2: Ecosystems are Resilient to Expected and Unforeseen Change

Resilience in Mountain, moorland and heath ecosystems is assessed through diversity, extent, condition, and connectivity. Species diversity is medium in upland heath and rock habitats but low in alpine and peatland areas due to nitrogen deposition and overgrazing. Habitat extent has deteriorated long-term, especially in lowland areas, though upland heathland shows signs of recovery. Peatland extent may be increasing due to restoration, but mapping challenges remain. Condition is generally poor, with five of seven habitat types assessed as low. Connectivity is weakest in fragmented lowland habitats, while upland peatlands show better integration.

Restoration efforts under the National Peatland Action Plan and LIFE Quaking Bogs have improved hydrology, erosion control, and vegetation management across thousands of hectares. Future resilience depends on continued habitat restoration, sustainable grazing, and collaborative land management. The Sustainable Farming Scheme proposes cooperative approaches for peatland stewardship. However, climate change poses ongoing risks, including altered species ranges and increased carbon emissions from degraded peat. Maintaining and enhancing habitat condition, especially outside protected sites, is essential to support resilient ecological networks.

Aim 3: Healthy Places for people, protected from environmental risk

Mountain, moorland and heath ecosystems protect human health by regulating climate, air, and water. Peatlands store significant carbon but release greenhouse gases when degraded. Restoration has reduced emissions by over 6,000 tonnes of CO₂-equivalent annually. Vegetation filters air pollutants, preventing premature deaths and life years lost. Peat and organic soils regulate water flow, reducing flood risk. However, damage from past land use has weakened these services. The National Peatland Action Plan’s hydrological improvements over 2,110 hectares help restore these functions.

These landscapes also support cultural and recreational well-being. Over 17 million visits were made to Mountain, moorland and heath areas in 2021/22, with Yr Wyddfa alone attracting over 540,000 visitors. Mountain, moorland and heath ecosystems offer educational opportunities and preserve cultural heritage, including peat-cutting traditions and archaeological remains. Despite widespread Open Access, physical environment deprivation persists in some areas. Recreational pressures — such as erosion and disturbance— require integrated management to ensure sustainable use and equitable access for local communities.

Aim 4: Contributing to a Regenerative Economy, Achieving Sustainable Levels of Production and Consumption

Mountain moorland and heath ecosystems supports sustainable economic activity through water purification, grazed biomass, pollination, and tourism. Peatland restoration improves water quality and reduces treatment costs. Less Favoured Areas, mainly Mountain, moorland and heath, host 25% of Welsh farms, though profitability relies on subsidies. Heather-rich habitats support pollinators and high-value honey production. Recreation generates £40 million annually and supports jobs in tourism and outdoor leisure.

Economic pressures—intensive grazing, afforestation, and renewable energy development—threaten ecosystem integrity. Windfarm construction on peatlands causes habitat loss and hydrological disruption. Drainage remains a concern, although ditch-blocking has improved conditions. The National Peatland Action Plan aims to restore 45,000 hectares of peat by 2030. Sustainable land management, appropriate grazing, and mitigation of recreational impacts are key to balancing economic use with ecological regeneration. Harnessing tourism to fund restoration and community benefits offers a promising path forward.

Key changes since SoNaRR2020

Overall, there appear to have been few significant changes to Mountain, moorland and heaths since SoNaRR2020 in terms of drivers and pressures, resilience, ecosystem services and benefits and progress towards SMNR. This is not unexpected, given the time it may take for many drivers of change to generate a response in such extensive and complex ecosystems, and also given limitations in evidence to demonstrate change. One major change is the unparalleled rise in Renewable Energy applications with the potential to impact upon peatland habitats, peat soils and other semi-natural upland habitats. Woodland creation to meet national targets may also have undesirable impacts on these ecosystems, and climate change remains a universal pressure. Peatland restoration and management to improve condition has increased through the National Peatland Action Programme and LIFE projects. The forthcoming Sustainable Farming Scheme offers opportunities for ecosystem improvements to mountain, moorland and heath and better achievement of SMNR.

Read the full assessment of the mountain, moorland and heath ecosystem in our State of Natural Resources Report 2025.

Read this assessment

 

 

Underlying evidence

In writing our assessments and to better identify opportunities for action we have gathered evidence that helps us understand these key aspects:

  • the drivers of change and pressures on the Mountain, moorland and heath ecosystem in Wales.
  • the ecosystem resilience of the Mountain, moorland and heath ecosystem in Wales.
  • the benefits, or services, we get from the Mountain, moorland and heath ecosystem and how changes in the state of the Mountain, moorland and heath ecosystem impact on well-being.

Access the detailed evidence through our SoNaRR 2025 Evidence portal.

View full screen version.

 

Evidence needs

Evidence needs for the Mountain, moorland and heath ecosystem focus heavily on understanding and enhancing ecosystem resilience and condition. Key gaps include assessing the current health and trends of Mountain, moorland and heath habitats, identifying drivers of change such as climate, land use, and pollution, and evaluating the effectiveness of restoration techniques. Specific concerns include the impact of monocultures like Molinia caerulea, the role of mowing in bog and heath recovery, and the resilience of arctic-alpine species. There is also a need to understand the condition of protected and semi-natural habitats, and the influence of challenge events and diffuse pollution on ecosystem integrity.

A second theme centres on ecosystem services and sustainable management. Evidence is needed to map shallow peat and organic soils, quantify carbon sequestration benefits, and assess the greenhouse gas balance of transition mires. Further gaps include understanding the provisioning of genetic and wood resources, visual and sensory amenity values, and the role of Mountain, moorland and heath in water regulation and flood mitigation. Barriers to peatland restoration and landowner engagement also require exploration to support policy and practical interventions.

Key evidence sources

Explore some of the evidence we have used to inform our assessment:

Case studies

The National Peatland Action Programme

The National Peatland Action Programme is a 5-year plan of peatland restoration in Wales, 2020 – 2025. Restoration action on over 1650 hectares in the first two years means the programme surpassed its initial restoration targets of 600-800 hectares of public and private land every year.

Natural Resources Wales / The National Peatland Action Programme

LIFEquake

LIFEquake is a five-year project funded by EU LIFE which aims to restore peatland, quaking bogs and their wider supporting wetland landscapes to favourable conservation status.

Natural Resources Wales / LIFE Quaking Bogs

Limestone Grassland Community Roots

The North Wales Wildlife Trust's Limestone grassland restoration Nature Networks Fund project is working with local people to restore habitats, remove invasive species, and create opportunities for learning, volunteering, and community connection.

Limestone Grassland Community Roots Project | North Wales Wildlife Trust

 

Livestock awareness

Blue Cross has worked with the Welsh Government to produce a course aimed at reducing livestock worrying.

Dogs and Livestock | Sheep and Cows | Blue Cross

 

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